Buds

A bud is a growing point, surrounded by small, partially developed leaves. Its is in reality a rudimentary stem in a state of dormancy or limited growth, protected by an envelope of scales. It may consist of a mass of meristematic cells or of several nodes and very short internodes. Close examination of a well- developed bud reveals leaves and buds in the same order as on a growing stem of the same plant. Several classifications of buds origin, position on stem, position on node, time at which they begin growth, and function.

Position on Stem :

In the growth of buds are formed at different positions, The principal kinds of buds, with regard to their location on the stem, are terminal, auxiliary and lateral. Terminal buds are those that develop from the terminal growing point at the end of a stem when growth cusses. In some kinds of plants, they are formed regularly; in others the growing point tends to about, leaving no bud does form, it is usually the one to engine growth firsts the following spring. A terminal bud is regard as being dormant or largely so; whereas a terminal growing point is regarded as being in a state of active growth and elongation. An maxillary bud is one that occurs in the axil of a leaf- the angle between the leaf and the stem. They are designated as as axillary’s buds even after the leaf has shed. These buds are also properly calls lateral buds, however may occurs jor where the leaf was rudimentary. Examples of the latter class are frequently observed on parts of pecan shots that are formed near the end of the growing seasons. The peach, tung tree, and less frequently the rose produce shoots with certain nodes and leaf axils at which no buds occur, These are commonly blind buds or blind nodes.

In most species only a single bud develops in the axil of each leaf. In some, however, two , or even more may may develop, The bud nearest the terminal of the shoot is usually the largest of the group and is named the primary hub. Commonly, however, all except the primary bud are referred to collectively as the secondary, or reserve, buds. The p[remarry bud is the one of the group most likely to grow when the tree starts growth in the spring. The reserve buds oftentimes begin normal growth with the primary buds, but they are especially likely to grow under conditions of excessive soil moisture or if the growth from the primary bud is injured by cold weather, insects, or other causes.

Vegetative and Flower Buds.

The growth in height of a plant and the production of branches is due to the growth of vegetative buds. These are also called leaf buds.

Flower buds contain the rudimentary blossoms with various parts of the flower enclosed. Since flowers normally produce fruit as they continue to grow and develop, these buds are also known as fruit buds,. Flower buds develop from, of in close association with vegetative buds ;  hence, they occur on plants in the same general position as vegetative buds. In others, the two are quite similar in appearance.  The formation of flower buds takes place in some species during the season pro virus to the own in which the flowers appear. In other species the flower buds do not form until a time shortly before the buds begin to grow. In the peach, for example, the flower buds that boom in the spring ate formed during the previous summer and fall. Flower buds of citrus develop in late winter or early spring preceding the blooming period. An accumulation  of stored food in a plant is regarded as favorable for fruit-bud formation, and this accounts for the considerable variation in the time within a species when flower buds are formed.

Some species of plants produce mixed buds. The contain both flowers and vegetative parts within the same bud; consequently, when they begin growth they prejudice both vegetative in the time within a species when they produce both vegetative growth and flowers. The apple, pear, and blackberry are plants that produce mixed buds.

Dormant and Latent Buds :

 The buds of most fruits develop and mature during a given season and remain dormant over winter. Such buds begin growth the following spring and either develop into shoots of fruits or fall off, or they may remain dormant for a period of one to several years, in which case they are called latent buds. They may even become covered over by layer of bark; however,these latent buds usually make sufficient annual growth outward to prevent them form being over walled. When trees are cut back heavily, any of the 'water sprouts' that develop arise from latent buds

Adventitious Buds :

Normally shoots arise from well- formed buds, but occasionally they develop from other tissues, which form adventitious buds and shoots that grow from these are called adventives. Those that arise from foots are known as ‘suckers’ form example buds of the pear, blackberry, and persimmon plants. The point  of their origin is in the cambium of roots. Adventives shoots may also arise from stems. These originate principally in the cambium layer. Those that occur on the body or framework of trees and which make rank, venous growth are called ‘water sprouts.’ Most such shoots, however, arise from latent buds. Adventive shoots, however, arise from latent buds. Adventive shoots are also produced readily by leaves of some plants and less readily by others. The shoots originate from parenchyma  tissue close to the vascular bundles in leaves of dicotyledonous plants; and frequently from callus, formed at the cut or injured portion of the leaves of monocotyledonous plants.

Leaves :

Mineral nutrients and water from the soil are combined with carbon dioxide in the leavers, under the influence so sunlight, to form plant foods essential to growth. Leaves are later appendages formed by the stem in elongation. Plants that shed their laves at certain seasons, and hence have a period during each yearly cycle when they are bare and another when they are in full foliage, are known as deciduous plant. Examples are peach and apple. Those that retain their leaves for long periods, and do not shed all of them at one time but shed them so gradually that the trees have leaves on them at every season of  the year, are known as evergreen plants. Broad-leaved every greens are represented by such plants as citrus and cherry laurel, which retain their leaves form more that on year, and by other such as the live oak and ya upon, which retain them only until new le3aves are formed the following spring. The pines, arborvitaes, spruces, and junipers are examples of the coniferous evergreens.

Some horticulture plants are grown primarily for their vegetative parts. Other are grown for the flowers, fruits, or seed which they produce.  

Inflorescence :

Al;though the flowers of many plants are borne singly on stalks or stems known as pedicels, in numerous other cases the flowers are cases the flowers are borne in clusters known as inflorescence. The principle parts of the inflorescence are the peduncle, pedicels, and individual flowers.

 The peduncle is the main stem or central axis. Form it arise the pedicabs or in many cases the flowers directly without pedicabs. A flower, then many be borne one a pedicel or it may be attached to the main axis pr peducle without any stalk or pedical, in which case it is known as sessile. The area of attachment of the flower to the pedicel, or in the absence of a pedicel, to the peduncle is known as the receptacle.There are several distinct types of inflorescence,such as spike, raceme, corymb head, fascicle, and glomerule, based upon the position an relationships of the different parts. A determinate inflorescence, for example, is one in which the inflorescence is on in which the terminal remains vegetative, with flowers borne laterally as in the cabbage and hyacinth. In some cases the peduncle is branched, giving rise to a compound inflorescence.In some flower clusters both simple and compound types are represented. this is true in the Grape and cabbage.t

Flowers :

The flower is the forerunner of the fruit and seed. In order to consider the proceed that result in fruit and seed formation, it is important to give some though of flowers. There are two essential parts of the stigma, the style, and the ovary, which is the lower, enlarged portion. In it are borne the ovules, which when mature, become seeds. The style forms the connection between the ovary and stigma, and through it the pollen tube passes on its way into the ovary. The stigma represents the upper portion of the pistil; its receives the pollen and affords a favorable medium for its germination.

Special equipment is used in the growing of many horticultural plant. This equipment is used to start plant at seasons when out side condition are unfavorable, to grow plants to maturity at off seasons of the year, and for the propagation, by maturity at off seasons of the  year, and for the propagation, by seed or vegetative methods, of plants that require special treatment.

Types of Special Equipment :

There are several  different types of kinds of special equipment. The kind or species of plant to be grown, the length of time the entrapment is needed during a season, initial cost, operating expenses, and other similar factors are considered in deciding upon equipment to be used. 

Forcing Hills and Plant Protectors :

Certain structures are designed to cover the  individual plants in the field. They are known as forcing hills or plant protectors.

Types :

Several types are used. Formerly, one made in the form of a box, usually 12 inches square and 12 inches high with a pane of glass for cover , was used extensively. The initial cost, cost of storage, breakage and labor required to place them over the plants and removed them have all tended to discourage their  use.

Other types of plant protectors, however, are used for growing plant in the open. Small conical cover made of translucent paper or plastic are used commonly. Some plastic cover are flexible and are designed for using once only others rigid and may be used reputedly.

Uses :

Plant protectors and forcing hills are used to protect plants form untimely cold weather and form damage by wind. They are also used to increase the soil temperature to a degree which is favorable for the germination of seed. Workers in Arkansas have shown that muskmelon seed planted early in the spring germinate quicker when plant protectors are used, be cause of the higher prevailing soil temperature. The plants which got an early start ultimately produced marketable melons at a slightly earlier date than plants in locations where no covers for crops that produce a heavy yield of a valuable product form an individual plant. The tomato and muskmelon are examples of such plants. On the contrary, it would be impracticable to use forcing hills for carrots or radishes because the unit return from an individual plant of such crops is too small to justify the expense for labor and material.

Cold Frames and Hotbeds :

Cold framers are designed primarily to protect plants from cold without the use of artificial heat. Hotbeds differ from cold framers in that they are provided with artificial heat.

Uses :

Cold frames and hotbeds are used widely in the starting of vegetable crops, and to a lesser extent for cuttings. Cold framers are used primarily in protecting plants against a few degrees of cold, usually in early spring. They are also useful in providing protection against wind and excessive rainfall, and in the hardening of plants prior to transplanting to the field, a practice that is discussed in the chapter on transplanting. In some places, crops are started in cold frames and, when the water permits, the frames are removed and the crops continue. Plants may be grown in hotbeds at seasons when it would be too cold for them in cold frames; Oftentimes, Young plants are started in late winter in a hotbed and later as the weather becomes milder they are transplanted to the cold frame. After a period of growth there, they are finally moved to the field when outside weather conditions have become favorable.

Construction :

Cold frames and hotbeds are constructed in the same general manner. They are usually made of wood or concrete. When wood is used, the structures can easily be made so that they are movable, This makes it possible to set them up at different places each year and to store them during off seasons. Insulating the walls, particularly those made of wood, makes them more effective in retaining heat and providing protection. This is cor manly done by lining inside walls with heavy paper or by banking soil against the outside of the walls. The standard width of cold frames and hotbeds is 6 feet; the length is variable, depending upon the space needed. Cold frames and hotbeds should be located on the south side of a building or other barrier which will provide protection from north winds. The lengthwise direction should be from east to west. The north wall of the structure should be 6 inches higher than the south wall. This facilitates shedding of water when the frame is covered. It provides better exposures to sunlight in late winter and early spring and also provides some protection form north winds. The bed or floor of the cold frame or hooded should be even with, of slightly above the surrounding ground level to ensure good drainage. When concrete is used to make a permanent structure, the wall usually extend well into the soil and therefore special provision should be made to provide adequate drainages by the use of a sand or  gravel fill and tile drains.

Classes of Plants

There are many different system of classifying plants, from the standpoint of botanical relationships and stage of development. As viewed by the horticulturist, however, plants may be classified c cording to the relative of time that they require to couplet a cycle of growth.

Life Cycle of Plants The life cycle of any plant is the entire process of growth that is involved from the germination of the seed to the predication of a crop of seed by the new plants. The actual duration of this period is very variable, since some plants mature and produce seed much more quickly than others. Portulaca and some of the graze finish the life cycle in a few weeks, while the Northern spy apple does not bear fruit and make seed until ten to fifteen years old.
The behavior of certain plants, from the standpoint of the life cycle, is quite different from that of other.One group of plants, known as mono clinic, produces only one crop of seed and then dies. in many of these plants the length of life many be prolonged by preventing them from flowering and producing seed. plants, which  may also be said to have completed their life cycle when they produce seed, do not die but continue to live  and produce seeds for many years.

Floriculture And Ornamental Horticulture

The commercial production of flowers and the production of tree and shrubs for landscape planting are much more recent developments, but both have reached tremendous proportion in a shout period  of time. There are at present approximately 6,00 major growers of floral craps and 12,000 others operating on a lesser scales, employing 160,000 people and utilization  210  million square feet of greenhouse space. The wholesale floriculture carp amounts to 3.5 billion and the retail business to 8.5 billion  The nurseries of the Unites State have a capital investment of 1 billion and average annual crop value of 99million.

Throughout the world, thee are many horticultural industries of outstanding interest and significance, such as the bulb industry of Holland, coffee in Brazil and Central America, bananas in Central and South American, and cacao in several of the tropical  areas, principally in Asia and Africa. In the case of cirrus world production, representing many counters, reached the staggering total of 500 million boxes in 2000-2011 

In connection with these major phases of production based on type of plant material involved, there are also several important kinds of work that involve various plants in each group. Propagation of plants is accomplished by many different methods, of which see dag is the  most common:  other methods include the use of various plants parts such as bulbs, rhizomes or tubers, layers or cutting, and finally budding and grafting. These practices are fundamental in the many types of greenhouse and nursery industries: and even in the case of seed age many new techniques are constantly being developed  to aid grows.

Precessing of horticulture products by dehydration, pickling, canning, and quick freezing represent another industry that has expanded rapidly in recent years. For example, the canned pack of  three vegetable and three fruits in a recent average season was 125 million cases. the pack of reopen vegetable was 990 million pounds:  of only three fruits, 300 million pounds: and of frozen citrus concentrates, 50 million gallons. Breeding of horticultural crops and testing of variates are other types of work which continue to be increasing importance from year to year.New materials are being continually introduced from other and new methods of inducing variations have resulted in a much wider range of characters for select. A few yer ago, most frut varieties were the result of chance seedling, but each year an increasing number of new varieties with desirable characters are being made available  as a direct result of this breeding program.

There are two sources of flooding in Bangladesh

There are two sources of flooding in Bangladesh during monsoon. Water deposited in the upper watershed outside Bangladesh is brought by the rivers and we have upper-big or small-in the country. This destroys the standing crops, but it also brings silt and  nutrients to the soil. The second source of flooding is rainfall within Bangladesh. The water the rain water and the water coming from outside is not a problem by itself. The big problem is how fast this water can be drained off the land. To solve this problem, our people have, over the centuries, dug thousands of canals and built thousands of embankments. These canals must be re excavated and these embankments reconstructed every few years during the dry season.

Normally, cover of some kind are used for cold frames and hotbeds. The most satisfactory cover is the standard sash. It 3 ft feet wide and 6 feet long. Glass panes are imbedded in the frame and glazed to provide waterproof and airtight protection. In use the sash is placed lengthwise across the cold frame or hotbed. The standard sash is expensive; yet it is a satisfactory cover. A frame cover with glass permits the absorption of heat from the sun on clear days. And it enables the bed to retain it during the night and during cold period; it is possible in this way to provide temperature that are more uniformly favorable for plant growth than would be the case if the frames were  not so covered. Various other materials are used as covers for cold frames. Screen wire imbedded in a transparent material similar to cellophane makes a satisfactory cover. This material is usually tacked on frames of dimensions that perm it of convenient handling. Different grades and weight of cloth that range from heavy duck to light domestic are also used. The untreated cloth may be used, but treating the material with hot linseed oil or melted paraffin increases its durability, makes it more nearly waterproof and airtight, and renders it more effective in protecting the frame during unfavorable weather.

Methods of  Heating Hotbeds. Heating of hotbeds is accomplished in four principle ways

Hot water or steam.

Where hotbeds adjoin a greenhouse that is heated by steam or hot water, the heating pipes may be extended in to the beds also. Other provisions are sometimes made for steam or hot water. The pipes are usually placed about 5 or  6 ins below the seedbed surface. Where it is desired to protect plants against an occasional late frost or freeze, and where it is desirable to warm the air, but not necessary to warm the soil, the pipes may be suspended along the inside walls at about  the level of the seabed. Hotbeds heated with steam or hot water is very satisfactory because the temperature can be regulated accurately.

Organic Matter :

The heat liberated in the decomposition of organic matter can be used as a source of heat for hotbeds. Animal manures are used commonly and fresh manure from grain-fed horses is considered best. Hay, straw, and cornstalks are also used, thought the heat produced by these is much less. The hotbed is excavated to a depth of from 18 to 30 inches. The manure or other organic material is packed well into this basin, especially around the edges and in the corners. When the required amount has been added, a layer of good soil, 4 to 6 inches deep, is spread smoothly over the top. This constitutes the seedbed and its surface should be slightly higher than the level of the surrounding ground. When moisture is added, heat is produced by organic material and the seedbed above absorbs some of the heat. The greatest heating effect is at the beginning of the period, and the temperature gradually subsides. Hence, this type of hotbed is more satisfactory for use in the spring than in  the fall. If manure, or other organic material, is available locally, the chief expense of providing heat is the labor necessary to put the bed in operation

Flue Heat :

By another method, hotbeds are heated by flues. In the construction of such beds, a firebox  lengthwise of the bed to an outlet at the opposite end. Two lines of flues, properly spaced, give a more uniform distribution of heat than if only one line is used. Soil is placed over the flues to provide the planting bed. Hot gas and smoke from the firebox, passing under the bed, create the heating effect. Cheap fuel is essential for the practical operation of a flue-heated hotbed. Wood has been used more commonly than any other fuel, but high labor costs are making it more expensive. Careful and regular attention is required to provide uniform heat; hence the labor cost of operation is high. They are inconvenient to operate, particularly   when it is  necessary to provide heat day and night for a prolonged period.

Electricity  :

As electricity becomes more generally available, it is being used increasingly in the heating of hotbeds. Light bulbs, mounted on suitable panels, and suspended in the air within the hotbed, may be kept burring short to keep the air temperature above the danger point during short cold periods. Several low-watt-power globes distributed over the entire area to be heated are preferred to s smaller number  of high-watt-power globes. In addition to the hearting effect, light bulbs provide supplemental light which is advantageous in some cases; Special lead- and plastic-cover heating cables are now available for heating hotbed soil. The cable is laid back and forth across the bed 4 to 6 inches deep over it. A thermostat may be used to control the temperature at which the electric current will cut off and on. The soil temperature to be provided varies with the different kinds of plants to be grown in the hotbed. For tomato and sweet potato the thermostat is set so that current will be cut off if the soil temperature rises above 85° F. and will come on again if the temperature drops below 75°F. When the cable has been installed with a thermostat, a favorable soil temperature is provided automatically and the labor cost for operation is reduced to a minimum. The amount of electricity required, and hence the4 cost for heating hotbeds, depends principally upon (1) the temperature required, (2) the amount of cold weather which prevails, and ( 3) the type of  hotbed and covers used.

With sweetpotatoes in Texas, 13 kilowatt-hours of electricity were  required to produce 1000 plants when the bed was covered with standard sash, but 23 were required when a cloth covering was used. Beds banked with soil (as insulation) required 27 kilowatthours for each 1,000 plants, while 51 were required for the beds without insulation. The plants were 5 days earlier in the beds covered with standard sash and in the insulated beds than in check cooler, For several locations in Texas the electricity for heat to produce sweetpotapo slips ranged from 1.7 kilowatthours per 1,000 plants ranged from 7 to 13 kilowatthours at different locations, depending upon the amount of cold weather the prevailed during the period of operation. Oftentimes costs are  calculated upon the electricity required to provide heat for the area covered by one standard sash. Thus tests in Washington and Pennsylvania show that the cost during a certain period was almost 3 cent per sash are week; while under different conditions, in Maryland, the comparative cost was only about 1.5 cents per sash per week. very important in our country.