Graftage

Graftage  is the art of inserting a part of one plant into another plant in such a way that the two will unite an continue their growth. It differs from cuttage, layer age, and bulb propagation in that the plant part expected to produce the top of the new plant is deprived of its own root system and unites with another plant that supplies this part. The art of graft age is not new. Country to popular opinion, it is no recent innovation in the arts op plants craft. Pliny, writing before the birth of Christ, Recognized graftage as horticultural practices, and it known that is was practiced before his time. Columella, who died shortly after the birth of Christ, mentioned certain kinds of graftage, praticularly the bark graft, cleft graft, and patch bud, which he said had been practiced by the ancients. It is a significant fact that at those early periods in agricultural history the unreliability of seeds and the important of graftage were appreciated in the reproduction of varieties. At various times have actually been rediscovered by worders who were not familiar with their previous use.

The field of graftage includes scion grafting and bud grafting, commonly referred to as grafting and budding. The two, however, are so different that a discussion of each will be reserved for separate chapters. Some of the operations and terms that are common in all types of graftage will be considered in the following sections.

Top- Working : 

 The series of operation whereby the top of a plant is replaced with a top a different variety is known as top-working. In some cases a large plant of the old top is cut away and a new one started ; after which the old one is cut away by degrees until the top consists largly of a differnt variety. Trees may be top-worked successfully by either budding or grfting or by a combination of the two. The process may be completed within on season of it may extend over several years, depending upon the size and conformation of trees to be top-worked. In reality, bud-ding or grafting of small nursery tree is top-working ; the term, however is generally use with regard to changing the tops of larger trees.

Dehorning: 

  The practice of cutting the main limbs and trunk of a tree back to stubs is known as dehorning. The extent to which trees can be safely cut back varies with the species, some can be cut back much more severely than others. In practice, trees are cut back so that the stubs that remain range in length from 1 to 4 feet and diameter from 1to 6 inches. when a tree is dehorned, the limbs should, if possible, be cut at points that will result in the new top having a symmetrical shape. It is not advisable to cut limbs at different heights so that the new growth of  some will obstruct sunlight and create shade for others. In order to facilitate healing of the wound , a limb to be dehorned should be cut a t point where a side limb or a lateral bud occurs on the upper side. This virtually assures growth from very near the terminal part of the stub, and this encourages over waling of the wound . If no shoot grows within 1 inch of the end of the stub, it usually becomes advisable tore cut it during the first year at a point whee a lateral  limb has developed in the meantime, preferable on the upper side of the stub. Considerable application in renovation pruning and is use in many cases as a preliminary step in the top-working of large trees.

Forcing:  

Any treatment that encourages and hastens growth of a bud or graft is referred to as forcing, It is known that the terminal growing point creates hormones which restrain the growth lateral buds below.Essentially, forcing consists of elimination of this influence and creating for the bud or graft a terminal position from a physiological standpoint. In practice, of a tree are different from the budded or grafted top. The body stock may be the same as the root system, bud in many cases it is of different king, as consequence of double-working.

Matrix:

 The matrix is a place on the rootstock that is prepared for the insertion of a bud or graft.

Scions: 

 The limbs that are cut from any plant to be sued in graft age  are known as scions those which are to be used for grafting are known as grafts, or graft wood; and the ones that are to be sued as a source of buds for budding are called bud wood scins reproduce the kind of tree or plant from which they are taken and hence are obtained from they variety  to be propagated. Healthy parent plants should be selected in order to prevent the spreading of disease in propagation.

The success of budding and grafting by the different methods depends, among other things, upon the use of the appropriate kind or type of scions, and also upon methods of handling them from the time they are cult from the parent tree until they are finally sued. The time that intervenes may be a few hours or several months.

Graftwood: 

 d Scions for grafting are usually obtained from one year-old wood, sometimes older wood is used. They should be straight, smooth, have normal, plump buds, and few or no side branches. The size range for graft wood amy vary considerably for different methods.

--> Scions for grafting should be thoroughly dormant at the time they are used. Dormant scions normally contain reserve stored food to provide energy for respiration callus formation, and early growth of the scion. They should be secured before the plant from which they are to be taken shows any signs of growth .Those cut in midwinter tend to remain dormant longer after they are inserted in to a stock than those that are cut a  later date, scions that make premature top growth before union is established usually wither and die within a few days. In practice it is customary to cut scions any time from midwinter until 2 or 3 weeks before the parent tree, with no more than a day day or two intervening.

Scions that are to used relatively late in the grafting season may be cut and held in cold storage in order to keep them dormant. At a temperature of from 32 to 36˚ f. graft wood can be stored successfully for 4 months or longer, though there is seldom any occasion for storing it this long. Prior to storage, the scions should be packed in moist insulating material .Sphagnum moss and coarse sawdust are commonly used for this purpose, both are light and easy to handle, absorb be moist, scions show that from 3 to 5 pounds of water for each pound of sphagnum moss is sufficient. It is desirable to add the water and soak it uniformly in to the insulating  material before packing if around

Grafting Wax: 

 A solution grafting wax can be made by mixing, by weight, 10 10 parts of pine resin, 2 parts beeswax, and 1 part talc. These are mixed by heating and are applied in a melted condition with a  ⅓ -inch brush.  The melting point of this mixture is a about 165˚ F , and the mixture should be used when it is at about this temperature or only slightly higher.

Melted paraffin is suitable as waxing material and is used quite commonly for earl spring budding and grafting. It is not suitable for budding or grafting when the temperature is above 85 or 90˚ because of its tendency to melt and to cause scalding of the bud or graft. A pint Thermos bottle shown in Fin 102, with a brush handle inserted through a cork stopper, is a very convenient type of dispenser for melted paraffin.

Transplanting

Transplanting consists of moving plants from one place to another with the intention of having them conutnue there growth in the new location.

         Transplanting

The art of transplanting is probably more widely than any other in horticulature work,except that of planting seed. It is important in the growing of flowers, vegetables, and fruits. Many vegitable crops are started in specially prepared seedbeds and later moved to the field. Building site are quickly made attractive, parks are established, high-ways are provided with shade, orchard and small fruit plantations are established, forests are replanted and flowering plants are rendered more valuable- allby various adaptation of this practice. The distance involved may be small or greaqt, only a few feet or hundreds of miles. Success in either case depends parthly upon care exerised in the three rather distinct operations of digging, moving, moving to the new location, and replanting. It depends, certain environmental factors, as, fore example , humidity and temperture .

When a plant is transplanted, it may reseume growth in due time –either promthly or delayed –or may die. To survive, then plant must have sufficient reserve-food manterals to sustain respiration and to support the initial growth of roots and top. In addition, it must have or it must develop quickly roots, to take up sufficient moisture to provide for transpiration from the top a transplanted plant is closely associated with the absorption water loss from the top by transpiration, and enable the root system to absorb water and nurtuents, more readily increase the chances of survival of the plant.

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Methods of Moving plants. 

Bare-rooted. 

One common method of moving horticultural plants is known as bare-rooted transplaning.By this method the root systemis removed from the soil in which is has grown, and is replanted in a new location.The root system of plant moved in this way is seriously damged by physicale injury, and it is subjected to some exposure,both of which are likely to destroy root hairs and growing root tips and hanicap the plant isn herbacesous plants and for deciduous trees and shrubs.

Shifting.

Plants may be moved aslo by shifting, an operation wherby plants are startedin pors or similar cotainers, and from these moced to a langer container or to a permanent location.By this method the soil remains intact, with little or no damage to the toor system. The is a means wherby species that do not stand transpl;antin well are sucessfully moved .

Balling and Burlapping.

Particularly the same results as shifting may be obtained for larger plants by balling and buralapinng In doing this, the plants are dug to include the main roots intact in a ball ofearth, which is supported by burlap. This procedure is commonly used in moving evergreen plants, as described later, and also decidouse species during the growing season.

Herbaceous Plants.

May vegetable and flowering plants are transplanted when in a tender, succulent, growing condition. The success with which such plants can be transplanted depends on server factors.

Formation of New Roots .

Plants of some species do not stand transplanting well.This is true of corn and may of the peas

Horticultural Industries

Horticultural Industries

In modern times, horticulture has been separated several fields of specialized interest:

Pomology. Fruit growing is one of the most ancient of horticulture industries, as indicated in records of many of the early civilization of the worlds. In this country, fruit-growing has reached a very intensive stage of development, from the standpoint of technology.The commercial fruit industry of the United States,  including citrus fruits, apples, peaches, grapes, pears, strawberries, cherries, plums, and many others, extends over an area of 6 million ares with an annual average production in recent years of 20 million tons and a cash value to the growers in excess of 1000 take million. Tree-nut production averages annually 25,0000 tons with a cash value to the growers of 90million.

Olericulture

Vegetable production is also an ancient horticulture enterprise. Aside from home and marker gardening, vegetable production in the Unites States has been expanded over tremendous areas with the growing of such crops as lettuce, tomatoes, melons, onions, cabbage, and many other truck crops, for shipment railway and truck refrigeration to distant markers. The commercial vegetable industry covers approximately 2 million acres with an annual average production of 10 million tons and a cash value to the growers of 1000000 million.

Bulbs and other Modified Structures

Most horticultural plants are characterized by normal roots stems, leaves, flowers and fruits. There are, certain plants in which one or more of these parts have become highly modified. These plants constitute some of the most valuable and interesting flowering and vegetable plants.
classification:
The various types of bulbs and other modified structures may conveniently bi included in the following classification.
1. Bulbs.
a. Layered or tunicate. Examples: onion,garlic, narcissus, hyacinth,and tulip.
b. Scaly. Example: lily.
2. Corm, or solid bulb. Examples: gladiola and crocus.
3. Rootstocks
a. Rhizome. Example canna,banana,bamboo,and asparagus.
b. Pip. Example: Lily ot the Valley.
4. Stem tubers. Example : Irish potato and Jerusalem artichoke.
5. Fleshy roots. Example: sweet potato and dahlia.
Important and use:

It is appropriate to outline briefly several phases of interest related to the production and uses of bulbs and other modified structures considered in this chapter. Propagation Stock. The kinds of plants included in the forgoing classification are planted widely by commercial grower and home owners. This, then reates and need for planting stocks. Formerly most of the planting stock sas grown in foreign countries, notably in Holland . In recent years restrictions have been placed on importation of foreign-grown stock to lessen the danger of introducing new disease and insect pest. The effect of these to supply the need for planting stock. Commercial producing Washington, and other states, and the domestic supply in now being produced largely in these areas.

Forcing Certain Kinds of bulbs are used widely for forcing to produce blossom, usually at seasons when flowers are not plentiful. The3y are popular with commercial florists, who sell them as cut flowers or as potted plants, Bulbs are the most popular plant for forcing in the home. They may be grown in blows of water, in sand, or in sil.

Naturalized Beds. Bulbs are popular flower for naturalized beds, where they are allowed to grown largely undisturbed for a number of years. They are specially suitable for this purpose because they are hardy and are attacked by relatively few insect pests or disses, they normally bloom at a time of the year when flowers are scarves, and they grow several years with a minimum of care.

Economic Use: Several of the plants of this class have economic value because of the edible parts which they produce and their important as food plants. This is notably true of the Irish potato. sweet potato, banana,and asparagus.

Methods of Budding

Patch Bud: 

The patch bud is a popular form of budding in the propagation of species that are rather difficult to propagate,  Essentially, the patch-bud method consists of removing a square or rectanguiar piece of bark from the stock and inserting in its place a bud of a desired variety on a similarly shaped piece of bark. Two parallel cuts, ⅗ to ⅞ Inch apart, are made on the stock, preferably with a two- bladed budding knife. The cuts should be made perpendicular to the stock and should be about 1 inch long. With a sharp pocket knife, two longitudinal cuts are nest made. They likewise should be about  ⅗ to ⅞ Inch apart, and each should intersect the two horizontal cuts, resulting in the square or rectangular "patch'. Similar cuts are made above below, and on each side of a bud on a bud stick with the same tools that were used on the stock. Care should be exercised in order to avoid splitting the bark beneath the bud. The bark should be lifted carefully on one side, or both sides if necessary, and the bud loosened by a lateral twist. The bud is held in place on the scion while the patch of the stock is flipped off, and the bud is then quickly transferred to its place.

In making the transfer it is important that the delicate cambium cells on the the underside of the bud and on the exposed surface of the stock be subjected as little as possible to mechanical injury and exposure to air. The bud should fit snugly in its new location and should be tied immediately. It is then tied and made airtight with cotton twine and paraffin, waxed tape, wide rubber budding strips, and other similar materials.

Stock that rang in size ⅓ to 4 inches in diameter may be patch-budded quite successfully. For the larger ones it is usually necessary to pare the rough outer portion of the bark down to the thickness of the bud wood bark at the time the bud is put in place. This precaution is essential to the success of the inserted bud in that it allows the pressure of the tying material to be exerted on the bark of the bud rather than on the thick shoulder of bark on either side of it. Buds for larger stocks should be selected with special care. They should be taken from smooth, straight bud sticks, and only large, plump buds should be used, small buds are difficult to force and should be discarded. 

Patch buds may be inserted successfully at any season of the year when the bark will slip freely. Those that are set early in a season are usually forced promptly, while the ones that are set late remain dormant over winter and are forced the following spring.
There are several other methods of budding in which buds unite with the stock in much the same manner as the patch bud and differ from the patch bud only in minor details. These are conveniently considered in connection with patch budding. 

Raid bud: Ring budding differs from patch budding in that a cylinder of bark is removed from the stock in order to form a matrix; and the bud, when placed, extends nearly if not all the way around the stock. The stock is completely girdled, and if the bud fails to unite the pot part of the stock ultimately dies. The nature of the method renders it impractical except for small stocks, those not more than ⅔ to  ⅗ inch in diameter. A modified patch bud known as the bud differs prom the patch bud in that the two horizontal cuts on the stock are intersected by only one longitudinal cut. The two flaps of bark on either side of the longitudinal cut are lifted slightly, and the bud patch is inserted underneath, from above or below. In preparing the bud, the two horizontal cuts are made and the sides cut so as to form a square; but the longitudinal cuts are everything.

Taansplanting

Taansplanting consists of moving plants from one place to another with the inter=tion of having them contunue their growth in the new location.

The art ot transplanting is probably practced more widely than other in horticuluturl work, except that of planting seed. It is important in the growing of flowers, vegetable ,and fruits. Many vegetble crops are astrted in specially prepared seedbeds and later moved to the field. Building sites are quickly made attractive,parks are established, high-ways are provided withe shade, orchard and small-fruit plantations are established, forests are replanted, and flowering plants are rendered more valuable - all by various adptations of this practice. The distance involved may be small or great, only a few feet or hundreds of miles. Success in either case depends partly upon care exercised in the three rather4 distinct operations of digging, moving to the new location, and replanting. It depends, also, On the kind of plant, the condition of the plant, and upon certain environmental factors, as , for example, humidity and temperature .

When a plant is Transplanted.

It many resume growth in due time -either promptyly or delayed -or it may die. To survive, the plant must have sufficient reserve -food materials to sustain repiration and to support the initial growth of roots and top. In addition, It must have, or it must develop quickly , roots to take up sufficient moisture to provide for transpiration from the top of the plant . The important role of nuturients in the recovery of a transplanted plant is closely assouicate  with the absorption of moisture. Treatments or  conditions that reduce the rate of water loss from the top by transpiration, and enable the root system to absorb water and nutrients, more readily increse the chances of survival of the plant

Methods of Moving Plants.

Three general methods are used in Moving plants.........

Bare-rooted. One common method of moving horticulture plants ins known as bare-rooted  transplanted .By this method the root system is removed from the soil in which it has grown ,and is replanted in a new location. The root system of a plant moved in this way is seriously damaged by physical injury, and it is subjected to some exposure, both of which are likely to destroy root hairs and growing root tips and to handicap the plant in renewing growth. Nevertheless, this method is used widely for herbaceous plants and for deciduous trees and shrubs.

Shifting.

Plants may be moved also by shifting , and operation whereby plants are strted in post or similar containers, and from these moved to a larger container or to a permanent location. By this method the soil remains intact, with little or no damage to the root system.This is a means whereby species that do not stand transplanting well are successfully moved.

  

Balling and Burlapping.

Practically the same results as shifting may be obtained for larger plants by balling and bur lapping. In doing this, the plants are dug to include the main roots intact in a ball of earth, which is supported by burlap. This procedure is commonly used in moving evergreen plants, as described later, and also deciduous species during the growing season.

Herbaceous Plants.

Many vegetable and flowering plants are transplanted when in a tender, succulent, growing condition. The success with which such plants can be transplanted depends on several factors.

Formation of New Roots.

Plants of some species don not stand transplanting well. This is true of corn and many of the peas and beans . It is true also of plants of the cucurbits, such as the watermelon , cantloupe, and squash, These plants are difficult to transplant because they form new roots slowly and because the roots early develop a suberized layer which makes them ineffective in the direct absrption of watrer. Root hanrs are largely  lost in transplanting, and ezcept under most favorable envirnm=nmental conditions, the plants can be moved satisfactorily only by shifting. On the country, many herbaceous plants can be transplanted readily . Thise is true of such common vegetable as the tomato, pepper, vabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, onion, and others,It is true also of many flowers as , for example, zinnia, tetunia, apparently because they form new roots quicklyu and arem apparently because they form new roots quickly and are hence, soon able to supp;ly the top with moisture, This characteristic is especially noticeable  in tomatoes, recently transppanted plants will often form new roots by the second or third day following transplanting . In moving a plant from one location to another, it is desirable not only that the plant live ,but it renew growth as quickly as possible.

Care in  Hardening.

Strong, stocky plants that have been properly hardened in the seedbed stand transplanting better than soft, succulent plants. Hardening occurs when the growth of plants is retarded . It is aqccompished principally by (1) subjecting the plants to relatively lower temperatures, by (2) withholding moisture, and by (3) applying solutions of certain chemicals, such as nitrates and chlordes of potassium, sodium, and calextrem, lest the plants be dwarfed severely. The object of hardening is to check the grwth of the plant to the extent that it may be abloe to stand adverse conditions after transplanting to the field , such as higher or lower tempertures, wind , dry soil or air, and hot sunsine. In the process of hardening, the wqater content of the plants is reduced, and the osmotic concentration incresed correspordingly. This condition makes them more retentive of moisture, which is the primarey requsite for hardiness to cold, heat, or drought. Hardened plants have a better developed of new roots and thereby enable it to become established more readily . Stored food a;sp enables the plant to  endure longer berore it is wekened by respiration to apint wher it can no longer respond . Furthemore, hardened plants don notr lose water by transpiration son rapidly as those not hardened.hardenig I desirable even for plants that are to be shifted from post to the field.

Care in Handling.

Te care exercised in handling  herbaceous plants determines, in a large messure, their response following transplanting. They should be removed from the seedbed with as much of thir root system as is practicable and replanted with the least possible delay. They should be pretected in the meantime by wet sacks, damp moss, or some other moist insulating matrerial. Often the roots are 'puddled' and  operation wherby the roots are dipped in a thick mun in order to protect them from excessive drying while they are exposed. In replanting they should be set slightly deeper than t=they stood in the seed the soil should be pressed firmly about the roots and water should be added to settle the soil and increase th amount of available moisture.

Weather Conditions.

The rate of transpiration is relatively low on cool, mostt, cloudy days, The same process normally goes on more slowly late in the afternoon and during the night than during midday. Water requrements are hence less, and the injured root system is able to supply the top more adequately than would be the case if the plant were using more water in transpiration. Thus, Plants have a better chance to survive if moced late in the afternoon or on days that are still, cool, cloudy, and humid.

Deciduous Trees and Shrubs.

The grape, walnut, peach fig, and rese are examples of deciduous plants.Bare-toote transplanting is the method commonly used in transplanting these plants, and the recovery and renewed growth of them is influenced largerly by the extent to which transpiration is controlled, by the ability of the plant to develop new functional roots, and by the amount of reserve foods present in the plant.

Transpiration..

Most transpiration goes on through the leaves therefore a logical time to transplant deciduous plants is during their dormant period. It is true that the tree is expected to produce new shoots and leaves when it resumes growth the following spring, but in the meantime it will usually have developed new roots sufficient to supply the entire plant adequately with moisture. It is customary to cut back the top of tree and shrubs so as to reduce the amount of foliage produced and thus restrict transpiration to an amount likely to be supplied by the root system, or int growth the same results can be obtained by partial or complete defoliation. Coating the top tree with melted paraffin, Paraffing emulsion, or similar preparartion reduces evaporation and the consequent weakening of the top.

New Root Formation.

Moisture essential for top growth of plants is absored largely by root hairs or other very minute feeder roots. These are ordinarily destroyed when the tree or shrub is removed from the soil.Furthemore, the tips of small and large roots, the regions from whic feeder roots aries, are destroyed. Thus, Nes branch roots most arise from the pericycle of the portion of the root making primary groth that is near the growing tips. These root tips, However ,are usually completely destroyed in bare-rooted transplanting, and any new roots that form must then necessarily develop from the cambium of older root-those that are making secondery growth. Trhese aresaid to be adventitious roots. Some kinds of plants produced such roots readily, others less readily. Differences in formation of adventitious roots possoblity account for the ease of transplanting the peach and the difficulty encountered in transpiration plantingh the pecan.There is some evidence to indicate that adventitious roots normally form more readily on small roots than onlarger roots of the same plant. Small roots, However, suffer more from drying and other injury. Root pruning during the growing season before a plant is to be moved results in more root branching and a more compact root system. In digging such plants a greater portion of the root system is obtained than is likely when the practce is not followed.

Cerain plants produce adventive roots more readily as the buds begin growth and leaves are formed in the spring . The walnut, pecan ,and persimmon are examples of plants of this class. Tthebest time for transplanting them is in late winter or early spring, when ther wqill be the least delay in initiation or root development.

The formation of adventitious roots may be encouraged or hastened by the use of certain chemicals, notably indoleacetic and indolebutyric acid, applied in various ways. Indolebutyric acid has been used successfully in encouraging new root formation in th epecan. Holes are bored transversely into the tap and lateral roots, and toothpicks whic have been soaked in a soultion of the acid so that they each contain 4 milligrams, are insetred in the hloes.Roots form much more readily at points receiving these treatments than at other plances.

New root inrmation takes place most redily in a wee-aerated soil. If the soil where the tree is planted fis kept watrerlogged by raingall or by excessive irrigation, new root formatrion is discouraged and the pllant is likely to suffer.

to suffer

Reserve Foods.

Plants that have made a normally vigorous growth in th nursery stand transplanting better than those that have made restricted growth because of a better supply og reserve- food materials. The reserve food encourages a rsadier formation of adventitious roots and better to growth , and it supports respiration of th e plants more adequately in the meantime.

Two rather distinct practices are followed in the replanting of trees .According ton noe, the tree is placed in the hole slightly deeper than it stood  in the nursery. Loose soil is added and pressed firmly about the roots,which  are adjusted from thime to time in their nautural postion as far as possible. Sod, clods, and subsuil encountered in diggingthe hole should be used last in filling in around the tree and should not be packed in around the roots. It is not advisable to add manure of fertilzer to the soil around the recently transplanted tree.

According to another practice, the soil is shoveled in around the roots of the plant, without any effort to pack it. WHen the hole is almost filled, without any effort to pack it. after which the rest of the hole is filled. In either case it is important to handle the tree so that the root system is protected against drying or freezing the root system with tick mud, as described for herbaceous plants, ins a convenient way to protect is agains dry ing.

Evergreen Trees and Shrubs.

Plants that retain their foliage throughout the year known as evergreens. There are two principal kinds. The rhododendron, box avocado, certain species of ligusturm, and citrus are examples of the so-called : transplanting "broad-leaved"  evergreen plants. The pines, cedars, junipers, firs and arborvitaes are examples of coniferous evergreen. In each of these kinds, because of thepresence of leaves on  aplant, the rate of transpiration is far greaer than it is without them, and the moisture required to keep the plant alive is corresponkingly greater. Dvergreen plants are rarely moved bare-rooted, because in most instances the moisture lost by transpiration from the leaves is greater than can be supplied by th injured root system Death is inevitable if such a condtion exixts fore very ling. Two courses of action may be followed.

Layerage

Stems that form root while still attached to the parent plant are called layers, and the practice based on this phenomenon is known as layerage. In some plants artificial methods must be employed, while in others root formation occurs naturally . the rooting medium is usually soil although other materials are used.

Uses:
Layerage is a rather certain method of inducing rooting.Some plants that cannot be started satisfactorily from cuttings can be grown with relative ease from layers, A cutting, having been severed from the plant on which it grew often does not remain alive until roots are formed. A layer, on the contrary, is supported by the parent plant indefinitely and, in the meantime, it is likely to develop rots.


Many plants produce natural layers freely and thus provide a ready source of new plants. This is true of the raspberry and strawberry and certain forms of the blackberry and dewberry. In these plants the layers are produced by either runners or upright canes that, by arching, come in contact with the ground and develop roots. Other plants produce natural layers form the crown of the plant. The quince and chrysanthemum illustrate this behavior.
On a small scale, layerage may be used to good advantage, for the reason that layers don not requirethe close attention as to watering, humidity, and temperature that cutting require Roses are sometimes grown from layers for this reason.
Objections to layerage are that it is a slow and cumbersome method of propagation; that is may interfere with cultivation; and that parents plants produce a limited number of new plants, so that a great number of stock plants must be provided .Despite these disadvantages layerage is used quite commonly in the propagation of some plants, an certainly has wide range of adaptation for the amateur gardener.

Simple Layers :
Branches that have formed roots in one aresa only are called simple layers. Such layers are made by bending the branches to the ground and covering the portion just below the tip with 3 to 6 inches to soil. This practice is usually carried on in early spring, before growth has started. The tip of the shoot is left exposed, to form lwaves and carry on the normal processes of the plant.
It is ac common practice to injure tho portion to be covered, by notching, cutting, girdling, or twisting. This practice destroys the phloem tissue, partially or completely, and retards the downward movement of foood matereals manufactured by the leaves of the exposed terminal potion., The result is an accumulation of plant food above the injured area, and such plant food is favorable to the development of roots by the layer. It is also considred that the injury checks the downward movement of hormones, and the concentration of these in the injured area stimulates Root Formation.
The season of the year for making layers varies with the species.With some the best results are obtained if layers are made in late winter or early spring; with others, late summer and fall seem to be transplanted successfully to a new lactation other require two seasons to develop a strong root system a strong root system.
Many different kinds of plants can be3 grown from simple layers. In actual use, however the method is restricted largely to very difficult species, and to plants grown for home use.
Tip Layers: A tip layer differs from a simple layer in that the tip is completely covered. Tip layers are used extensively in the propagation of some varieties of blackberries, dewberries and raspberries. In starring new plants by this method the tips of branches are placed int he soil, pointing downward, to a depth of 2 to 3 inches, and covered the soil is paced lightly to hold the branch securely in place. For the production of a larger number of plants a shallow furrow many be plowed along the row a short distance form the plants, and all the available lateral tips laid in the furrow and covered. Tip layers of berries are best made in late summer. The covered portion will shortly become etiolated and fleshy. Attentive roots will develop in from 2 to 3 weeks, and the layer can then be dug, severed from the parent plant , and replanted in ta permanent lactation. This can be done shortly after rotting occurs, but best results are obtained by allowing them to remain in place utile the following spring, and replanting at that time. The rooted layer should be replanted with tip pointing upward since the stem will develop from the terminal bud

Compound Layers.
Long shoots that are alternately covered and exposed over their entire length are known as compound layers.They normally form roots at each node where they are covered and develop new shoots from buds at nodes that are not covered . When they have grown one season or more, the several layers are severed so as to provide a root system on the proximal portion of each layer and a top on the distal portion. The time of the year for making and for replanting compound layers is influenced by several factors. Normally they are made in late winter and early spring. The rooted layers may occasionally be replanted later in the same season, but mere commonly they are allowed to grow one or two full seasons in order to develop a strong root system. Compound layerge is adapted to the prorogation of the Muscadine grape. The natural production of rosettes and roots by the strawberry plant at each second node o the runners is similar to compound layerage.

Trench or Continuous Lyares :
The type of layer differs from the compound layer in that the branch is covered for its enter length instead of alternately. This method in adapted to the propagation of own-rooted apple, pear, cherry, and other plants needed for research investigations or Therese . It can also be used on Muscadine and other kinds of grapes that do not root well from cuttings. Essentially, trench layerge consists of placing the main stem of a plant in trench in a way that will permit young stems to develop from later buds and to form roots on the lower portions of these new stems.Plants that produce long vines can easily be bent to the ground.Other like apple and pear, must be planted in horizontal potion with the roots in proper contact with the soil and the main stem in the trench. Obviously, this would be practicable only with small whip like plants. In practice three methods are used in covering continuous layers. By one method, the layer is planed in an open trench. New shoot develop from lateral buds, and when they are about 6 inches high, soil is added to a depth of avout 5 inches. Roots develop on the bases ot the shoot that are covered with soil. By another practice, about 1 inch of fine soil is added when the layer is first placed in the trench. The new shoots push upward through this layer. As the shoots elongate, more soil is added around them until they are covered to a depth of 5 to 6 inches. The bases of shoots that develop when treated in this manner are etiolated, a condition favorable to ready rot formation. By still a third practice, the layer is covered root to a depth of about 3 inches with loose soil when it is made. The shoots push upward through this layer and develop roots from the etiolated portion of the stem below ground.In every case, the roots arise adventitiously from the cambium layer of the new stems. The best
season for making contentious layers is in late winter or early spring. The rooted plants are allowed to develop one full growing season before they are removed from the parent layer and replanted.

Mound or Stool Layers :
This method is especially satisfactory for the rooting of apple and quince rootstock and issue in preference to interlayering when possible, as it involves less trouble and expense. A stock bed is established by setting young plants 3feet apart in rows 4 feet apart. The plants are headed back before growth starts and are allowed to arrow for one season. The following winter the plants are cut back within 3 inches of the ground leave, with the result that many new shoots arise from the base during the following season.In the case of appl;es, which root freely from these new shoots, the stools are allowed to remain uncovered during the early part of the growing season. The greatest number of shoots are produced in this way after they are formed and have reached the height of 8 inches thy re mounded with 5 to 6 inches of soil. Mounding should be done with moist soil, which should be planed from the center outward in order to bend the shoots out and give them better scarping. This spacing seems to give a better rooting especially with vigorous shoots.

When plums are being grown, the procedure is modified and the plants mounded before the new shoots rapper. This practice results in the formation of fewer new shoots than the other method, but the shoots that are produced are etiolated and form roots better than those that are produced before mounding. This applies not only to shoots from stools and layers but also to stems used for cuttings, from which better rooting is obtained when there bases have been etiolated during growth.

After the plants have been mounded by either method in early spring, they are allowed to grow during the rest of the season and roots will form on the new shoots along the covered portions of the stems. In early winter the rooted shoots are removed and planted in the nursery row .These parental set at a depth ao about 6 inches. They will be ready to bud during the summer of the following year, or they may be grafted at the end of one season in the nursery. The chrysanthemum forms natural mound layers from the overwintering crown at the beginning of each new growing season. These develop into new plants when thy are detached and planted out separately. Quince and Japanese flowering quince ave habits of growth that permit them to be propagated from natural layers from the crown of the plants. Varieties of currants and gooseberries that do not grow readily from cuttings are frequently grown from mound layers.

Air Layers.
A method used to root branches of upright growing plants that don not sprout or sucker readily is known as air layerage. Chinese layerage and pot layerge are other names for the same method.The stem is first injured by sliching, notching, rigging , or binding. Care must be exercised not to injure it sufficiently as to cause breadage or death of the layer. This can be effected easily by binding with copper wire wrapped tightly about the stem, and it has the same effect on rooting as the other treatments. It is common practice to apply a coating of one of the concentrated hormone dusts to the area where roots are to from.